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CHAPTER 2: Theories of Career Development
At-a-Glance…………
Detailed
Outline
Instructors
Resources
Print
Supplements
Media
Supplements
Professor
Notes
Trait and Type Theories
p. 21
John Holland: Theory of
Vocational Choice MyersBriggs® Type Theory
Objectives
Chapter 2
Chapter
Overview
Chapter 2
Key Terms
Chapter 2
Test Bank:
Chapter 2
Discussion Topics to
Encourage Student
Participation
Chapter 2
Classroom Activities
and Projects
Chapter 2
Companion
Website with
online
practice tests
Chapter 2
Web Links
Chapter 2
Developmental Theories
p. 27
Ginzberg and Associates:
Career Development Theory
Donald Super: Life-Span
Theory
Objectives
Chapter 2
Chapter
Overview
Chapter 2
Key Terms
Chapter 2
Test Bank:
Chapter 2
Discussion Topics to
Encourage Student
Participation
Chapter 2
Classroom Activities
and Projects
Chapter 2
Companion
Website with
online
practice tests
Chapter 2
Web Links
Chapter 2
Career Decision-Making
Theories p. 33
Tiedeman and O’Hara:
Theory of Career DecisionMaking Cognitive
Information Processing and
the Pyramid Model
Objectives
Chapter 2
Chapter
Overview
Chapter 2
Key Terms
Chapter 2
Test Bank:
Chapter 2
Discussion Topics to
Encourage Student
Participation
Chapter 2
Classroom Activities
and Projects
Chapter 2
Companion
Website with
online
practice tests
Chapter 2
Web Links
Chapter 2
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John Krumboltz: Social
Learning Theory p. 35
Determinants of Career
Choice Behavioral
Techniques Cognitive
Techniques Planned
Happenstance
Objectives
Chapter 2
Chapter
Overview
Chapter 2
Key Terms
Chapter 2
Test Bank:
Chapter 2
Discussion Topics to
Encourage Student
Participation
Chapter 2
Classroom Activities
and Projects
Chapter 2
Companion
Website with
online
practice tests
Chapter 2
Web Links
Chapter 2
Emerging Theories
p. 39
Constructivist Theories
Spiritual Perspective of
Career Choice Duane
Grown: Values-Based,
Holistic Model of Career
and Life-Role Choices and
Satisfaction
Objectives
Chapter 2
Chapter
Overview
Chapter 2
Key Terms
Chapter 2
Test Bank:
Chapter 2
Discussion Topics to
Encourage Student
Participation
Chapter 2
Classroom Activities
and Projects
Chapter 2
Companion
Website with
online
practice tests
Chapter 2
Web Links
Chapter 2
Theoretical Integration p. 42Objectives
Chapter 2
Chapter
Overview
Chapter 2
Key Terms
Chapter 2
Test Bank:
Chapter 2
Discussion Topics to
Encourage Student
Participation
Chapter 2
Classroom Activities
and Projects
Chapter 2
Companion
Website with
online
practice tests
Chapter 2
Web Links
Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
Theories of Career Development
Chapter Overview
TRAIT AND TYPE THEORIES
Trait and type theories incorporate the three principles Frank Parsons believed
were essential in helping individuals choose careers. These steps include a clear
understanding of self, knowledge of different lines of work, and the understanding of the
relationship between these two groups. Trait refers to individual characteristics, which
can be measured through testing and assessment. Type or factor refers to work
characteristics required for successful performance in a particular job. When these two
essential components are united, the result is a theory that assesses and matches the
characteristics of a person with the characteristics of a job.
John Holland’s Theory
According to John Holland personality develops as a result of the interaction of
innate characteristics, activities to which the person is exposed, and the competencies and
interests that develop from these activities. He theorized that there are six distinct
personality types that rarely occur in their pure form. In other words, an individual’s
personality type is never purely one type but a combination of the six types in varying
degrees in order of prominence. Holland’s six personality types are realistic,
investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional. Not only did Holland assign
personality types to people, he also proposed six different work environments and gave
them the same labels as the personality types. Work environments are atmospheres
created by people who dominate a certain setting. According to John Holland job
satisfaction is likely to come about when personality patterns are matched with
comparable work environments. Holland developed constructs to help explain the
relationship among the various personality types and work environments. Consistency
refers to the similarity or dissimilarity of personality types and work environments. To
illustrate this construct, Holland uses a hexagon with each type purposefully placed on
the diagram to show relatedness. Congruency refers to the relationship between the
personality type and the work environment. Differentiation refers to how clearly a
personality or a work environment belongs to one or two types. Differentiation can be
determined through the scores received on inventories that measure the six types. Taking
the highest score of any type and subtracting the lowest score determine levels of
differentiation.
Myers-Briggs® Type Theory
The Myers-Briggs® Type Theory was originally designed as a personality theory
and was not intended to be a career development theory. It was developed by the mother
and daughter team of Katharine Briggs and Isabel Myers and rests on the analytical
psychology of Carl Gustav Jung. Jung distinguished two orientations of personality,
Extraversion and Introversion. He also described four primary psychological functions:
Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, and Intuiting. These functions combined with the
Extraverted-Introverted orientations are the basis for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®
(MBTI) instrument which purports to measure the way individuals prefer to use
perception and judgment. The MBTI
® tool is used in career settings in a number of
different ways. The four-letter codes can be useful in relating Myers-Briggs® types to
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occupational choice. It can also provide insight on individuals’ preferences for work
situations.
“MBTI, Myers-Briggs, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Introduction to Type are
trademarks or registered trademarks of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Trust in the
United States and other countries.”
DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
Developmental theories are concerned with career issues over the entire life span.
They emphasize the impact that biological, sociological, psychological, and cultural
factors have on career choice and on life transitions. They view career development as a
process as opposed to the trait and type theories, which deal with career issues at one
point in time.
Ginzberg and Associates
The team of Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herma consisted of an economist,
a psychiatrist, a sociologist, and a psychologist. Through their research they identified
four sets of factors that interact with one another thereby impacting career choice. These
factors include individual values, emotional factors, the amount and kind of education,
and the effect of reality through environmental pressures. Ginzberg and his colleagues
also differentiated three stages or periods in the career selection process, the fantasy
stage, the tentative stage, and the realistic stage. The tentative stage includes four
subphases: the development of interests, capacities, and values, along with a transitional
period. The realistic stage includes three subphases: exploration, crystallization, and
specification. Ginzberg’s et al. original research proposed that the developmental process
of career decision-making was irreversible, that is, individuals could not return
psychologically or chronologically to previous stages. Since this original research
Ginzberg modified the theory and subsequently viewed the decision-making process as
more open and not necessarily irreversible.
Donald Super’s Life-Span Theory
Donald Super’s Life-Span Theory not only includes a number of developmental
tasks and stages, but also some basic assumptions including the role that psychological
and socio-economic factors play in the development of self, the impact of self concept on
vocational development, and the notion of individual and life roles. Super’s vocational
development consists of a series of stages, substages, and developmental tasks. Stages
include growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and disengagement. Intertwined
within these concepts are a variety of roles individuals take on at various ages in a
number of theaters. Super proposed nine major roles, which occur in chronological order.
These roles include: child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent,
and pensioner. According to Super careers are the constellation of the interaction among
the various roles. These roles are played out in four different theaters: home, community,
school, and the workplace.
CAREER DECISION-MAKING THEORIES
Career decision-making theories are best understood by categorizing them into
two broad categories, descriptive and prescriptive models. Descriptive theories describe
or explain how career decisions are actually made. Prescriptive theories emphasize how
career decisions ought to be made.
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Tiedeman and O’Hara’s Theory of Career Decision-Making
David Tiedeman and Robert O’Hara’s descriptive approach to career decision
making was influenced by a number of theorists, including Erikson’s ego development
research and Super’s developmental approach to career choice. Tiedeman and O’Hara
developed a unique two-stage model of career decision-making: anticipating a choice and
adjusting to a choice. The first stage describes what happens as one formulates a career
choice and the second stage illustrates what ensues when one attempts to implement the
choice. One of Tiedeman’s more significant contributions to career development services
was the creation of a computerized guidance system. Tiedeman, along with some of his
colleagues, developed the Information System for Vocational Decisions (ISVD).
Cognitive Information Processing Approach
Gary Peterson, James Sampson, Robert Reardon, and Janet Lenz developed a
prescriptive approach to career decision-making. Their approach, cognitive information
processing (CIP), uses a pyramid to illustrate the essential areas of cognition involved in
career decision-making. The base of the pyramid contains the knowledge domains of
self-knowledge and occupational knowledge. The next level of the pyramid is the
decision-making skills domain. This dimension is labeled the CASVE (i.e.,
communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, and execution) cycle and includes
information processing skills that are related to career problem solving and decisionmaking. The final domain, located at the top of the pyramid, is the executive processing
domain and involves metacognitions where the individual becomes aware of how he or
she thinks and acts.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
Social learning theories are based on psychological research into the human
learning process. They often emphasize the importance of behavior and cognitions on
career decision-making.
John Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory
According to John Krumboltz an individual’s career development and career
decisions are based on learned behaviors. He feels the key determinants of career choice
and career development are genetic endowment, environmental conditions and events,
learning experiences, and knowledge of task approach skills. In addition to the
aforementioned dimensions of social learning theory, planned happenstance has played
an ever-important role in the social learning theory of Krumboltz. Specifically he
believes that there are times when individuals are going to have to deal with new
unanticipated problems and concerns that may come about while following through on
his or her plan of action. These unplanned or unforeseen events can include unpredictable
educational conditions, social factors, and occupational conditions, to name a few.
EMERGING THEORIES
There are a number of new, emerging theories of career development. Three
innovative theories of career development include the constructivist approach, the
spiritual approach, and a holistic model of career development.
Constructivist Theories
Constructivist approaches focus on subjective experiences and the person’s ability
to construct his or her own reality. Constructivist approaches are based on early work of
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George Kelly and have since been modified for use in career counseling. Constructivist
career counseling is a broad, all encompassing form of life planning and are helpful with
clients who have considerable self-efficacy and who have an aspirations to create
comprehensive, long-term plans.
Spiritual Perspective of Career Choice
Spiritual approaches to career development emphasize the influence that a
person’s spirit can have on his or her life, career choices, and the type of person he or she
will become. Spiritual approaches may or may not include a religious viewpoint. Anna
Miller-Tiedeman’s Lifecareer® approach to career choice views life as a process in
which an individual can free up energy, gain a sense of balance and harmony, and focus
on cooperating with approaching forces as opposed to worrying about finding a career.
Miller-Tiedeman has written extensively on her concept of life as a process and
developed a model and counseling approach referred to as “New Careering.” New
Careering is based on the principle of flow and uses as its foundation a wide range of
theories including quantum physics, Bohm’s notion of wholeness, and Self-Organizing
Systems Theory.
Brown’s Values-Based, Holistic Model of Career and
Life-Role Choices and Satisfaction
Duane Brown’s values-based model of career choice uses values as the
foundation based partially on the premise that work values are essential elements in the
career development process. According to Brown, values allow people to meet their
needs in socially acceptable ways and are shaped by the individual’s cultural context. As
such cultural and work values are the most important variables in occupational choice,
satisfaction, and success. Brown also believes that other factors, such as socioeconomic
status (SES), family or group influence, history of discrimination, gender, and the mental
health of the decision maker, to name a few, interact with values to influence
occupational choice and the outcomes of the choice.
THEORETICAL INTEGRATION
The combining of theories, or theoretical integration, can be especially effective
when providing group interventions. Although some theories may not easily integrate
with other theories a number of theories can be combined effectively. For example, lifespan, trait and factor, and career decision-making theories work well together.
Chapter 2:
Objectives
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to
2.1 Compare and contrast each of the five major categories of career theories
described in this chapter (i.e., trait and factor theories, developmental theories,
career decision-making theories, social learning theories, emerging theories).
2.2 Discuss and critique the applicability of John Holland’s theory for use with
women and minorities.
2.3 Summarize Holland’s six work models.
2.4 Describe their own stage of career development as set forth by Ginzberg’s Career
Development Theory.
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2.5 Demonstrate their understanding of Donald Super’s Life-Span Theory, by
describing their early role models and how these roles models influenced their
career development.
2.6 Apply the constructivist approach to career counseling with a client.
2.7 Apply the spiritual approach to career counseling with a client.
2.8 Apply the values-based approach to career counseling with a client.
2.9 Synthesize the career counseling theories presented in this chapter into a personal
theory of career counseling.
Chapter 2: Key Terms
Descriptive theories: Describe or explain how career decisions are actually
made.
Developmental theories: Refers to theories concerned with career issues over the
entire life span and view career development as a process. They emphasize the impact
that biological, sociological, psychological, and cultural factors have on career choice and
on life transitions.
Job shadowing: involves an individual walking through a workday (or other
period of time) as a shadow to a competent worker. It involves observation only and as
such, work skills are not acquired. Although this experience is temporary and unpaid it
provides exposure to a work setting in a career area of interest to the client. It is a
beneficial means of increasing career awareness by providing relevant career information
and is also a valuable networking tool.
Myers-Briggs® Type Theory: Developed by the mother and daughter team of
Katharine Briggs and Isabel Myers, rest on the analytical psychology of Carl Gustav Jung
who distinguished two orientations of personality, Extraversion and Introversion, and
four primary psychological functions, Thinking, Feeling, Sensing, and Intuiting.
Prescriptive theories: Emphasize how career decisions ought to be made.
Pyramid model: Used in the cognitive information processing (CIP) approach to
illustrate the essential areas of cognition involved in career decision-making.
Trait: refers to individual characteristics that can be measured through testing and
assessment.
Trait and factor theory: Trait and factor theory, also known as trait and type
theory incorporates Frank Parsons’ three-step conceptual framework (i.e., clear
understanding of slef, knowledge of different lines of work, and an understanding of the
relationship between these two groups) for helping individuals choose career.
Trait and type theory: Trait and type theory, also known as trait and factor theory
incorporates Frank Parsons’ three-step conceptual framework (i.e., clear understanding of
slef, knowledge of different lines of work, and an understanding of the relationship
between these two groups) for helping individuals choose career.
Type or factor: Refers to work characteristics required for successful performance
in a particular job.
Chapter 2: Discussion Topics to Encourage Student Participation
• Compare and contrast each of the five major categories of career theories
described in this chapter (i.e., trait and factor theories, developmental theories,
career decision-making theories, social learning theories, emerging theories).
• Discuss and critique the applicability of John Holland’s theory for use with
women and minorities.
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• Using Donald Super’s Life-Span Theory, describe your early role models and
how these roles models influenced your career development.
• Describe ways to utilize the Myers-Briggs® Type Theory to assist clients in
preparing for a job interview.
• Discuss how constructivism is similar and different from the other theories
described in this chapter.
Chapter 2: Classroom Activities and Projects
Developing a Career Theory
Have students work in small groups of 3-5 students. Assign each group a career
theory category (i.e., trait and factor theories, developmental theories, career decisionmaking theories, social-learning theories, or emerging theories). Have each group design
a career theory based on the concepts that are inherent in the career theory category they
have been assigned. Have groups present their theories to the class and have students
critique theories based on the theory’s applicability with certain populations (e.g.,
women, minorities, people with disabilities, etc.).
Role Play: Utilizing Cognitive Strategies
Have students form pairs with one student playing the role of a client and the
other student playing the role of the human service professional. Have students playing
the role of the clients, share a difficult career-related issue that is impeding their
progression towards their career-related goals. Following this role-play, have students
playing the role of the human service professional assist their client by role-playing the
following cognitive strategies: goal clarification, counter a troublesome belief, and
cognitive rehearsal. Following the role plays, as a group, discuss the effectiveness of each
strategy by asking “clients” to rate the usefulness of each approach in assisting them with
their career concerns.
Applying the Spiritual Approach to Career Counseling
Have students choose a specific ethnic population (i.e., African Americans,
Hispanics, Natives, Asians, etc.) and write a 2-3-page report describing how they would
apply the spiritual approach to career counseling to that population.
