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Chapter 2: Getting Started
Overview of chapter
Professional counselors are charged with being able to read, understand, and effectively apply research in
their practice. Counselors are not always comfortable with research fundamentals and their utility to the provision of
effective services. It is critical that counselors have a functional knowledge of basic research concepts. This chapter
serves as an introduction to the fundamentals of research including the roles, benefits, and challenges of research; an
understanding of the scientist-practitioner model; an overview of basic types of research; and the formulation of
research questions, hypotheses, and methodology.
Key words
Research – a systematic investigation which involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information in a
sequential manner in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon of interest
Research question- general question that guides the direction of the research. It defines the relationship between
what you want to know and how you intend to discover this knowledge through research
Hypothesis – inference or speculation that is indicative of the researcher’s best estimation of the projected results of
the research
Variables- characteristics which have more than one attribute or value thereby making them capable of varying
which is then observed or manipulated.
Research design- categories of research defined in terms of types of data collected and lines of inquiry
Quantitative designs – research designs that collect numerical or categorical data; the data can be expressed in terms
of real numbers
Qualitative designs – collect data in the form of narrative answers and often are focused on a central phenomenon;
focuses on the view of the participant, emphasizes the setting specific to the participant, and highlights personal
meaning of experience for the participant.
Experimental research – attempts to define causality; design allows the research to control or alter one variable’s
effect on another; the experimental researcher is interested in how the dependent variable responds as a result of the
independent variable
Independent variable – the variable being manipulated in experimental research
Dependent variable – the variable being studied in experimental research; the researcher measures the effect the
independent variable has on the dependent variable
Descriptive research -sets out to fully define the presence of a particular phenomenon; often the first step in any
research process as it empirically establishes the foundation for further lines of inquiry
Relational or correlational research – looks at the relationship between existing variables and is concerned with
linking or making an association between two or more phenomena; results in the ability to indicate whether X and Y
are related and, if so, the pattern and strength of the relationship
Target population – all the potential participants from which the research sample could be drawn based on the
research questions being investigated
Sample population – an accessible population or a group from which you can make reasonable inferences to the
larger population; a portion of a total population.
Representativeness – sampling concept that indicates the sample provides researchers access to the data needed and
can provide the same results as studying an entire population
Validity – the extent to which the results of a measurement or procedure actually serve the purpose for which it is
intended
Reliability – the extent to which the results of a measurement or procedure actually serve the purpose for which it is
intended
Research question – a statement of the problem and its significance
Random sampling – every person in the population has an equal and independent opportunity to participate in the
research
Systemic sampling – method which involves choosing every 5th person on a list of potential participants
Stratified random sampling – method which ensures that identified subgroups are represented in the sample; each
subgroup is sampled equally
Cluster sampling – a successive series of random samples used when the overall population under consideration is
too large for simple random sampling methods
Convenience sampling – made up of the members of the larger population that are most accessible to the researcher;
gathered based on non-random methods; also known as opportunity samples
Scientist-practitioner – uses research as the basis for reflective practice and to generate ongoing rigor in clinical
skills
Chapter Outline
I. What is Research? Why Conduct Research?
a. Research defined
b. How research informs the counseling profession
c. The role of the scientist-practitioner in counseling
d. How research ideas are developed
e. Basic research components
i. Research questions
ii. Hypotheses
iii. Variable
iv. Research design
1. quantitative
2. qualitative
v. methods of empirical inquiry
1. experiments
a. independent variable
b. dependent variable
2. descriptive research
3. relational or correlational research
II. Importance of sampling and Generalizability
a. Defining and sampling a population
i. Target population
ii. Sample population
iii. Representativeness in sampling
b. Validity
c. Reliability
d. Determining area of interest
e. Research problems
f. Research questions
g. Hypotheses
III. Sampling procedures
a. Random sampling
i. Systemic sampling
ii. Use of random number generator
b. Stratified random sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Convenience or opportunity sampling
e. Role of size in sampling
i. Best and Kahn (2006) considerations
1. larger sample increases likelihood of representativeness
2. survey designs typically require larger samples than experimental designs
3. samples divided into subgroups require large initial sample group
4. mailed surveys require large initial sample sizes due to low response rate
5. subject availability and cost factors influence sample size
IV. Writing the Research
V. Realities of research in counseling
a. Improving/controlling behavior as a goal
b. Accountability to the profession
c. Funding concerns
d. Divide between research and practice
e. Paradigm shift to scientist-practitioner model
f. Ethical and legal considerations
i. Best practice approach
ii. Competency
iii. Role of consultation and supervision
iv. Protection of participants
Suggested Activities
1. Your text states: “When there are gaps between what our clients need and what we are able to provide them,
an idea for research is born”. What counseling issues interest you? What presenting problems do you believe
call for a more effective intervention? Identify the gap between the needs of a particular client type and the
treatments available. Based on this, decide upon a research area that you would like to see investigated. For
example, you may have learned that many of the pharmacological interventions for mood stabilization have
unpleasant and difficult side effects for clients (e.g. weight gain, lethargy, difficulty concentrating). From this
you may decide that you would like to research what non-pharmacological interventions provided by
counselors provide the most effective treatment for clients suffering from bipolar disorder.
2. In the previous activity, you identified an area of interest or a research problem. Using the examples provided
in your text, develop a corresponding research question and one or more hypotheses for this identified
research problem.
Test Questions
1) A systematic investigation which involves collecting, analyzing, and interpreting information in a sequential
manner in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon of interest is also known as
a) Statistics
b) Analysis
c) Research
d) Methodology
2) Counselors primarily conduct research in order to
a) Inform practice
b) Become published authors
c) Benefit clients
d) a & b
e) a & c
3) ALL BUT WHICH of the following are basic components of research
a) Research question
b) Hypothesis
c) Variables
d) SPSS
4) Guiding the direction of the research, which of the following defines the relationship between what you want
to know and how you intend to discover this knowledge through research?
a) Hypothesis
b) Research question
c) Variables of interest
d) Research design
5) An inference or speculation that is indicative of the researcher’s best estimation of the projected results of the
research is the
a) Hypothesis
b) Research question
c) Variables of interest
d) Research design
6) Which of the following defines characteristics with more than one attribute or value that can be observed or
manipulated
a) Hypothesis
b) Research question
c) Variables of interest
d) Research design
7) Researchers wishing to study categorical variables would use which research design?
a) Quantitative
b) Qualitative
c) Phenomenological
d) Narrative
8) When a researcher is interested in linking or making an association between two or more phenomena, the
design that should be used is
a) Descriptive
b) Experimental
c) Relational
d) Phenomenological
9) Researchers wishing to study characteristics of a particular group of people need to consider
a) Sample size
b) Total population
c) Generalizability
d) All of the above
e) a & c only
10) Characteristics of quality research include ALL BUT WHICH of the following
a) A focus on a small slice of a large problem
b) Being limited in scope
c) Broad research questions in order to maximize generalizability
d) Clearly defined research problem
11) Which of the following is true regarding research questions
a) It is a statement of the problem and its significance
b) They can be in declarative or question form
c) It must be specific in focus and intention
d) All of the above are true regarding research questions
12) Which of the following is true regarding the hypothesis
a) It is a tentative or potential answer to the proposed research questions
b) It can be formulate before or after data collection
c) It can be in declarative or question form
d) All of the above are true regarding the hypothesis
13) Research designs that include selecting participants from identified subgroups within the total population
employ
a) Systemic sampling
b) Stratified sampling
c) Random sampling
d) Convenience sampling
14) ALL BUT WHICH are true regarding sample size
a) Realistically, the larger the sample the greater the generalizability
b) Trade-off occurs between the most desirable size and the most practical size
c) There are absolute minimum numbers that must be met for a study to be valid
d) Subject availability and cost factors are legitimate considerations
15) One of the primary applications of counseling research is
a) Controlling cognitive distortions
b) Improving mood
c) Smoking cessation
d) Improving/controlling behavior
16) Ethical research requires that
a) The researcher be competent to design, plan, and implement research
b) Researchers receive training beyond master’s
c) Participants be compensated for their efforts
d) Data be published
17) The variable that is capable of being manipulated is the dependent variable
True
False
18) The research design that sets out to fully define the presence of a particular phenomenon is known as
experimental research.
True
False
19) All possible participants from which a research sample could be drawn is known as the target population.
True
False
20) Causality can only be researched using experimental design.
True
False
