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2 THEORY AND RESEARCH
Guideposts
1. What purpose do theories serve and what are two basic theoretical issues on which developmental scientists
differ?
2. What are five theoretical perspectives on human development, and what are some theories representative of
each?
3. How do developmental scientists study people, and what are some advantages and disadvantages of each
research method?
4. What ethical problems may arise in research on humans?
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which of the following statements about theories is true?
A. Theories change to incorporate new findings.
B. Theories are based on certain assumptions.
C. Theories and research are interwoven.
D. All of these
Answer: D
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
2. In the study of human development, a theory is a set of
A. logically related statements seeking to describe, explain, and predict development.
B. facts derived from research.
C. research results that can prove behaviors.
D. opinions of a well-known authority in a field.
Answer: A
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
3. A good theory develops __________, which can then be tested by research.
A. data
B. hypotheses
C. findings
D. facts
Answer: B
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
4. Tentative explanations or predictions that can be scientifically tested are called
A. theories.
B. hypotheses.
C. research findings.
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D. conclusions.
Answer: B
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
5. “If children learn aggression from models, then children who watch violent television shows should be more
aggressive than children who watch nonviolent shows.” This is an example of a
A. theory.
B. finding.
C. hypothesis.
D. conclusion.
Answer: C
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Application
6. Which early philosopher described children as a tabula rasa on which society writes?
A. John Locke
B. Jean Piaget
C. Jean Jacques Rosseau
D. Erik Erikson
Answer: A
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
7. If Bill’s behavior is viewed as passive and reactive, he would be perceived as demonstrating the __________
model of behavior.
A. naturalistic
B. mechanistic
C. organismic
D. maturationistic
Answer: B
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
Type: Application
8. If Troy’s behavior is viewed as active and self-determining, he would be perceived as demonstrating the
__________ model of behavior.
A. naturalistic
B. mechanistic
C. organismic
D. maturationistic
Answer: C
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
Type: Application
9. Organismic theorists emphasize __________ change, while mechanistic theorists emphasize __________ change.
A. quantitative; qualitative
B. behavioral; developmental
C. qualitative; quantitative
D. mechanistic; organismic
Answer: C
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
17
Type: Knowledge
10. The quantitative changes, such as documenting the number of words added to a child’s vocabulary, support
which theory?
A. Mechanistic
B. Developmental
C. Qualitative
D. Organismic
Answer: A
Page: 26
Guidepost: 1
Type: Comprehension
11. Most of the early pioneers in psychology, such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget, favored the
__________ perspective on human development, which views development as occurring in specific stages.
A. organismic
B. quantitative
C. mechanistic
D. behavioristic
Answer: A
Page: 26
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
12. Psychoanalytic theory was developed by
A. Sigmund Freud.
B. Ivan Pavlov.
C. Albert Bandura.
D. Erik Erikson.
Answer: A
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
13. Stacy’s mother believes that most of Stacy’s acting out lately has been caused by unconscious forces within her
that motivate her behavior. Stacy’s mother follows the ______ perspective.
A. humanistic.
B. ethological.
C. psychoanalytic.
D. learning.
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
14. A therapeutic approach aimed at giving patients insight into their unconscious conflicts is called
A. repression analysis.
B. psychoanalysis.
C. psychosexual analysis.
D. psychoconsciousness.
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
15. Freud’s theory on human development states that people develop in an unvarying sequence of maturationally
determined stages of __________ development.
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A. psychosocial
B. psychoanalytic
C. psychoconscious
D. psychosexual
Answer: D
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
16. The proper order of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development is
A. anal, phallic, oral, latency, genital.
B. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.
C. anal, oral, genital, latency, phallic.
D. oral, latency, genital, anal, phallic.
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
17. According to psychosexual theory, 4-year-old Austin would be in which stage?
A. Oral
B. Anal
C. Phallic
D. Latency
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
18. As an adult, Mary spends considerable time each day cleaning her apartment, arranging her socks in a drawer
until they are just right, and making schedules on a calendar. According to Freud, Mary is probably fixated in the
__________ stage.
A. oral
B. anal
C. genital
D. phallic
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
19. According to Freud, during early childhood boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers. Freud called this
development ______________.
A. the Electra complex
B. the unconscious complex
C. the Oedipus complex
D. regressing
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
20. The stage of psychosexual development that occurs during middle childhood and is characterized by relative
calm is called the __________ stage.
A. oral
B. childhood
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C. latency
D. anal
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
21. Which of the following is NOT part of the personality as proposed by Freud?
A. Superego
B. Libido
C. Id
D. Ego
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
22. According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the “pleasure principle,” seeking the immediate
gratification of desires, is the
A. id.
B. ego.
C. superego.
D. ego ideal.
Answer: A
Page: 26
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
23. According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the “reality principle,” realistically finding ways
to obtain gratification, is the
A. id.
B. ego.
C. superego.
D. conscience.
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
24. Christa, a rather demonstrative 7-year-old, hits her brother for laughing at her, and feels guilty about it afterward.
According to Freud, Christa’s guilty feelings reflect the operation of the
A. id.
B. ego.
C. superego.
D. defense mechanism.
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
25. Which one of the following personality entities would be most similar to what is called “conscience”?
A. Id
B. Ego
C. Superego
D. Libido
Answer: C
Page: 27
20
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
26. One of the criticisms of Freud’s work is that he _____________________.
A. did not make us aware of the importance of unconscious thoughts
B. focused too little on childhood feelings and experiences in motivation
C. did not scientifically test concepts of id and superego
D. used too large a subject pool.
Answer: C
Page: 27–28
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
27. Unlike Freud’s theory, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
A. sees society as a positive force.
B. focuses on biological instincts.
C. covers infancy and childhood but not adulthood.
D. has much in common with behaviorism.
Answer: A
Page: 28–29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
28. Each of Erikson’s stages involved a major developmental issue that is particularly important at that time. Erikson
referred to these issues as __________ in personality.
A. traumas
B. crises
C. stages
D. phases
Answer: B
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
29. According to Erikson, the resolution of the crisis at each stage of psychosocial development must include a
_______ between positive and negative traits.
A. balance
B. skewing toward the positive
C. skewing toward the negative
D. synthesis
Answer: A
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
30. Pauline is in her fourth stage of development according to the developmental stage theory that Erikson put forth.
Under normal conditions, if Pauline lives into old age, in how many stages will she ultimately participate?
A. 3
B. 5
C. 8
D. 12
Answer: C
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
31. According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the first stage of development, which occurs during infancy, is
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A. trust versus mistrust.
B. autonomy versus state of
doubt.
C. initiative versus guilt.
D. industry versus inferiority.
Answer: A
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
32. According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, a teenage girl would be facing the crisis of
A. intimacy versus isolation.
B. integrity versus despair.
C. industry versus inferiority.
D. identity versus identity confusion.
Answer: D
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
33. An example of Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt would be
A. an infant learning that she can depend on being fed.
B. a 3-year-old trying to fill a cup with water and cheerfully wiping up the water when it spills.
C. a 10-year-old learning to read fluently.
D. a teenager conforming to peer pressure.
Answer: B
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
34. Freud’s research stressed the importance of
A. conscious behavior.
B. the role of heredity in parenting.
C. ways in which early relationships affect later ones.
D. the lack of use of recalling childhood experiences.
Answer: C
Page: 28
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
35. In contrast with Freud, Erikson placed more emphasis on
A. physical development.
B. intellectual development.
C. the role of parents.
D. social and cultural influences.
Answer: D
Page: 28
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
36. A long-lasting change in behavior as a result of experience or adaptation to its environment is called
A. modification.
B. cognition.
C. learning.
D. behaviorism.
Answer: C
Page: 28
22
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
37. Two important learning theories are____________ and_______________.
A. behaviorism; cognitive therapy
B. social learning theory; operant conditioning
C. social learning theory; psychoanalytic theory
D. psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
38. Learning theorists are most concerned with
A. measurable, observable behaviors.
B. unconscious determination of behaviors.
C. development of intelligence.
D. personality conflicts between parents and children.
Answer: A
Page: 30–31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
39. According to the _________ perspective, people’s actions are reactions to aspects of their environment that they
find pleasing, painful, or threatening.
A. organismic
B. behaviorism
C. psychoanalytic
D. humanistic
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
40. The ________ perspective emphasizes the influence of the environment rather than thought processes or
unconscious fantasies.
A. psychoanalytic
B. learning
C. organismic
D. humanistic
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
41. Behaviorists maintain that human behavior is determined by
A. defense mechanisms.
B. self-actualization.
C. unconscious conflicts.
D. conditioning.
Answer: D
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
42. A child learns to whine to get items at the store because when she whines, her parents get frustrated and give her
the desired items. She is basically being rewarded for her whining even though her parents do not seem to realize
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this and are frustrated because the whining is increasing. This is an example of ______ conditioning.
A. operant conditioning
B. classical conditioning
C. behavior conditioning
D. unconscious conditioning
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
43. In classical conditioning, an association is learned between
A. an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
B. an operant response and a reinforcer.
C. a conditioned stimulus and an operant response.
D. an internal stimulus and an external stimulus.
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
44. Which of the following researchers worked with “Little Albert” in one of the earliest and most famous examples
of classical conditioning in human development?
A. John B. Watson
B. Ivan Pavlov
C. B. F. Skinner
D. Edward Thorndike
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
45. The principles of classical conditioning were developed by
A. Sigmund Freud
B. Ivan Pavlov.
C. B. F. Skinner.
D. Edward Thorndike.
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
46. A girl receives an injection and cries. Each time she receives an injection again, the same nurse gives it. Her
mother notices that the child now cries when she sees this nurse even if no injection is given. This is an example of
A. classical conditioning.
B. operant conditioning.
C. fixation.
D. negative reinforcement.
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
47. The psychologist who formulated the principles of operant conditioning was
A. John B. Watson.
B. Sidney Pressey.
C. B. F. Skinner.
D. Ivan Pavlov.
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Answer: C
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
48. __________ is the principle that an organism will repeat behaviors when these behaviors are reinforced.
A. Classical conditioning
B. Operant conditioning
C. Pleasure principle
D. Reality principle
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
49. Any consequence of a behavior that INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior being repeated is called
A. punishment.
B. reinforcement.
C. an aversive event.
D. classical conditioning.
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
50. Punishment __________ a behavior by bringing on a(n)__________event.
A. increases; aversive or unpleasant
B. suppresses; aversive or unpleasant
C. suppresses; positive or pleasant
D. increases; negative or unpleasant
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
51. Reinforcement is most effective when it is __________ after the behavior it is designed to reinforce.
A. delayed
B. immediately
C. constant
D. aversive
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
52. Ann’s mother has stopped reinforcing Ann to make her bed. Ann’s bed-making behavior is likely to be
___________.
A. increased
B decreased
C. punished
D. learned permanently
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
53. Edwin is learning to ride his bike. Each time that he rides onto the gravel driveway, he loses control of the bike
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and falls. Eventually Edwin will no longer ride in the driveway. This example represents the learning process of
A. negative reinforcement.
B. intermittent reinforcement.
C. punishment.
D. conditioning.
Answer: C
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
54. The use of operant conditioning to modify or shape human behavior is called
A. classical conditioning.
B. punishment.
C. behavior modification.
D. reinforcement.
Answer: C
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
55. The principles of social learning theory were developed by
A. B. F. Skinner.
B. Carl Rogers.
C. John B. Watson.
D. Albert Bandura.
Answer: D
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
56. According to social learning theory, the most important element in how children learn a language, deal with
aggression, develop a sense of morality, and learn gender-appropriate behavior is
A. classical conditioning.
B. observation and imitation.
C. punishment of inappropriate behavior.
D. shaping of appropriate behavior.
Answer: B
Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
57. The process of modeling, or observing and imitating others, is referred to as
A. classical conditioning.
B. observational learning.
C. efficacious learning
D. psychoanalytical learning.
Answer: B
Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
58. ____________develops as children gradually learn to master challenges and achieve goals.
A. Social cognitive theory
B. Applied behavioral analysis
C. Social learning theory
D. Self-efficacy
Answer: D
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Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
59. Stacy feels confident in knowing she has what it takes to succeed. Stacy has developed
A. cognition.
B. behavioral analysis.
C. social learning.
D. self-efficacy.
Answer: D
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
60. The perspective on human behavior that is concerned with thought processes and the behavior that reflects those
processes is called the __________ perspective.
A. cognitive
B. thinking
C. behavioral
D. intellectual
Answer: A
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
61. __________ is the researcher best known for his theory of cognitive development.
A. Abraham Maslow
B. Sigmund Freud
C. Erik Erikson
D. Jean Piaget
Answer: D
Page: 32–33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
62. The two major points of Jean Piaget’s cognitive perspective are that people are active in their environment and
that behavior develops ______.
A. in specific stages regardless of culture.
B. randomly at any developmental stage
C. in a specific order that may vary based upon cultural variables.
D. randomly based upon the child’s environment
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
63. Which of the following is NOT one of the cognitive stages through which a child progresses, as theorized by
Jean Piaget?
A. Post-conceptual
B. Sensorimotor
C. Preoperational
D. Concrete operations
Answer: A
Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
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64. Piaget’s use of questions and flexible exploration of a child’s responses is known as the __________ method.
A. Socratic
B. clinical
C. field observation
D. interview
Answer: B
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
65. A structure of organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation is that
person’s
A. scheme.
B. situation.
C. adaptation.
D. assimilation.
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
66. Which of the following is NOT one of the interrelated principles developed by Piaget to explain the gradual
development of a child’s mental processes?
A. organization
B. adaptation
C. equilibration
D. unconscious processing
Answer: D
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
67. Piaget’s term for the process of TAKING IN formation and incorporating it into existing ways of thinking is
A. schematization.
B. shaping.
C. accommodation.
D. assimilation.
Answer: D
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
68. When a child first sucks on a sippy cup the same way the child sucked from a bottle, the child is trying to learn
to drink from the cup using the process of
A. assimilation.
B. modification.
C. acculturation.
D. adaptation.
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
69. From Jean Piaget’s perspective, a child who alters her behavior to more effectively deal with a new situation is
exhibiting
A. accommodation.
B. primary process thinking.
28
C. assimilation.
D. generalization.
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
70. According to Jean Piaget, what is the primary goal or need that leads children to change their ways of thinking to
adapt to new experiences?
A. Satisfaction of id impulses
B. Equilibrium
C. Stable sense of identity
D. Approval from parents
Answer: B
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
71. It is important for parents and teachers to understand how children think so they can more effectively _________
them.
A. discipline
B. teach
C. organize
D. manage
Answer: B
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
72. Jean Piaget’s formal operations stage does not account for the capacity to
A. develop practical problem-solving skills.
B. deal with ambiguous situations.
C. deal with competing truths.
D. All of these.
Answer: B
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
73. Which of the following is NOT a criticism of Piaget’s theory of development?
A. It pays little attention to emotional development.
B. It pays little attention to the influence of education on intellectual development.
C. It overestimates the cognitive abilities of young children.
D. It does not say much about individual differences in ability.
Answer: C
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
74. Psychologist Lev Vygotsky saw cognitive growth as a collaborative process in which children learn through
social
A. cognition.
B. status.
C. learning.
D. interaction.
Answer: D
Page: 34
29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
75. A teacher is helping to direct and organize Jay’s learning with blocks to help him master and internalize his
skills. This reflects Vygotsky’s notion of
A. structured application.
B. zone of proximal development.
C. distal learning.
D. zone of distal development.
Answer: B
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
76. ____________ refers to the temporary support that parents, teachers, and others give a child in doing a task until
the child can do it alone.
A. Laddering
B. Constructing
C. Scaffolding
D. Supporting
Answer: C
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
77. A major distinction between Piaget’s developmental theory and the information-processing approach is that
A. Piaget sees development as continuous, whereas the information-processing approach views development as
occurring in distinct stages.
B. Piaget sees development as an active process, whereas the information-processing view sees the organism as
passive.
C. Piaget focused on perception, whereas the information-processing approach focuses on thinking and memory.
D. Piaget sees development as occurring in stages, whereas the information-processing approach sees development
as continuous.
Answer: D
Page: 34–35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
78. The information-processing approach to explaining cognitive development compares the brain to a __________;
sensory impressions go in and behavior comes out.
A. calculator
B. computer
C. modem
D. telephone
Answer: B
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
79. Which of the following best explains the neo-Piagetian perspective on cognitive development?
A. It emphasizes the efficiency with which information is processed.
B. It explains individual differences in cognitive ability.
C. It explains how qualitative changes in cognition take place.
D. All of these are part of the neo-Piagetian perspective.
Answer: D
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
30
Type: Comprehension
80. Which perspective emphasizes the idea that species-specific behaviors enhance the survival of that species?
A. Behavioral
B. Social cognitive
C. Contextual
D. Ethological
Answer: D
Page: 37
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
81. In the 1950s, the British psychologist __________ extended ethological principles to the study of human
development, focusing attention on the mother-infant bond and the bonding process that produces attachment.
A. Mary Ainsworth
B. John Bowlby
C. Konrad Lorenz
D. Niko Tinbergen
Answer: B
Page: 37
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
82. The leader of a mother and baby workshop tells new mothers that attachment between an infant and caregiver
must occur during a critical period to ensure normal development. Which developmental perspective does this
workshop leader support with this statement?
A. Behavioral
B. Ethological
C. Psychoanalytic
D. Informative-processing
Answer: B
Page: 37
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
83. According to the __________ perspective, development can be understood only when individual behavior is
observed in interaction with the environment.
A. environmental
B. contextual
C. interactive
D. behavioral
Answer: B
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
84. Which American psychologist developed the bioecological perspective, which involves five interlocking
contextual systems ranging from the most intimate to the most distant?
A. Lev Vygotsky
B. Ivan Pavlov
C. Urie Bronfenbrenner
D. Jean Piaget
Answer: C
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge2 THEORY AND RESEARCH
Guideposts
1. What purpose do theories serve and what are two basic theoretical issues on which developmental scientists
differ?
2. What are five theoretical perspectives on human development, and what are some theories representative of
each?
3. How do developmental scientists study people, and what are some advantages and disadvantages of each
research method?
4. What ethical problems may arise in research on humans?
Multiple-Choice Questions
1. Which of the following statements about theories is true?
A. Theories change to incorporate new findings.
B. Theories are based on certain assumptions.
C. Theories and research are interwoven.
D. All of these
Answer: D
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
2. In the study of human development, a theory is a set of
A. logically related statements seeking to describe, explain, and predict development.
B. facts derived from research.
C. research results that can prove behaviors.
D. opinions of a well-known authority in a field.
Answer: A
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
3. A good theory develops __________, which can then be tested by research.
A. data
B. hypotheses
C. findings
D. facts
Answer: B
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
4. Tentative explanations or predictions that can be scientifically tested are called
A. theories.
B. hypotheses.
C. research findings.
16
D. conclusions.
Answer: B
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
5. “If children learn aggression from models, then children who watch violent television shows should be more
aggressive than children who watch nonviolent shows.” This is an example of a
A. theory.
B. finding.
C. hypothesis.
D. conclusion.
Answer: C
Page: 24
Guidepost: 1
Type: Application
6. Which early philosopher described children as a tabula rasa on which society writes?
A. John Locke
B. Jean Piaget
C. Jean Jacques Rosseau
D. Erik Erikson
Answer: A
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
7. If Bill’s behavior is viewed as passive and reactive, he would be perceived as demonstrating the __________
model of behavior.
A. naturalistic
B. mechanistic
C. organismic
D. maturationistic
Answer: B
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
Type: Application
8. If Troy’s behavior is viewed as active and self-determining, he would be perceived as demonstrating the
__________ model of behavior.
A. naturalistic
B. mechanistic
C. organismic
D. maturationistic
Answer: C
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
Type: Application
9. Organismic theorists emphasize __________ change, while mechanistic theorists emphasize __________ change.
A. quantitative; qualitative
B. behavioral; developmental
C. qualitative; quantitative
D. mechanistic; organismic
Answer: C
Page: 25
Guidepost: 1
17
Type: Knowledge
10. The quantitative changes, such as documenting the number of words added to a child’s vocabulary, support
which theory?
A. Mechanistic
B. Developmental
C. Qualitative
D. Organismic
Answer: A
Page: 26
Guidepost: 1
Type: Comprehension
11. Most of the early pioneers in psychology, such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget, favored the
__________ perspective on human development, which views development as occurring in specific stages.
A. organismic
B. quantitative
C. mechanistic
D. behavioristic
Answer: A
Page: 26
Guidepost: 1
Type: Knowledge
12. Psychoanalytic theory was developed by
A. Sigmund Freud.
B. Ivan Pavlov.
C. Albert Bandura.
D. Erik Erikson.
Answer: A
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
13. Stacy’s mother believes that most of Stacy’s acting out lately has been caused by unconscious forces within her
that motivate her behavior. Stacy’s mother follows the ______ perspective.
A. humanistic.
B. ethological.
C. psychoanalytic.
D. learning.
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
14. A therapeutic approach aimed at giving patients insight into their unconscious conflicts is called
A. repression analysis.
B. psychoanalysis.
C. psychosexual analysis.
D. psychoconsciousness.
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
15. Freud’s theory on human development states that people develop in an unvarying sequence of maturationally
determined stages of __________ development.
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A. psychosocial
B. psychoanalytic
C. psychoconscious
D. psychosexual
Answer: D
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
16. The proper order of Freud’s psychosexual stages of development is
A. anal, phallic, oral, latency, genital.
B. oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital.
C. anal, oral, genital, latency, phallic.
D. oral, latency, genital, anal, phallic.
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
17. According to psychosexual theory, 4-year-old Austin would be in which stage?
A. Oral
B. Anal
C. Phallic
D. Latency
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
18. As an adult, Mary spends considerable time each day cleaning her apartment, arranging her socks in a drawer
until they are just right, and making schedules on a calendar. According to Freud, Mary is probably fixated in the
__________ stage.
A. oral
B. anal
C. genital
D. phallic
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
19. According to Freud, during early childhood boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers. Freud called this
development ______________.
A. the Electra complex
B. the unconscious complex
C. the Oedipus complex
D. regressing
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
20. The stage of psychosexual development that occurs during middle childhood and is characterized by relative
calm is called the __________ stage.
A. oral
B. childhood
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C. latency
D. anal
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
21. Which of the following is NOT part of the personality as proposed by Freud?
A. Superego
B. Libido
C. Id
D. Ego
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
22. According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the “pleasure principle,” seeking the immediate
gratification of desires, is the
A. id.
B. ego.
C. superego.
D. ego ideal.
Answer: A
Page: 26
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
23. According to Freud, the part of the personality that operates on the “reality principle,” realistically finding ways
to obtain gratification, is the
A. id.
B. ego.
C. superego.
D. conscience.
Answer: B
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
24. Christa, a rather demonstrative 7-year-old, hits her brother for laughing at her, and feels guilty about it afterward.
According to Freud, Christa’s guilty feelings reflect the operation of the
A. id.
B. ego.
C. superego.
D. defense mechanism.
Answer: C
Page: 27
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
25. Which one of the following personality entities would be most similar to what is called “conscience”?
A. Id
B. Ego
C. Superego
D. Libido
Answer: C
Page: 27
20
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
26. One of the criticisms of Freud’s work is that he _____________________.
A. did not make us aware of the importance of unconscious thoughts
B. focused too little on childhood feelings and experiences in motivation
C. did not scientifically test concepts of id and superego
D. used too large a subject pool.
Answer: C
Page: 27–28
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
27. Unlike Freud’s theory, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
A. sees society as a positive force.
B. focuses on biological instincts.
C. covers infancy and childhood but not adulthood.
D. has much in common with behaviorism.
Answer: A
Page: 28–29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
28. Each of Erikson’s stages involved a major developmental issue that is particularly important at that time. Erikson
referred to these issues as __________ in personality.
A. traumas
B. crises
C. stages
D. phases
Answer: B
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
29. According to Erikson, the resolution of the crisis at each stage of psychosocial development must include a
_______ between positive and negative traits.
A. balance
B. skewing toward the positive
C. skewing toward the negative
D. synthesis
Answer: A
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
30. Pauline is in her fourth stage of development according to the developmental stage theory that Erikson put forth.
Under normal conditions, if Pauline lives into old age, in how many stages will she ultimately participate?
A. 3
B. 5
C. 8
D. 12
Answer: C
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
31. According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, the first stage of development, which occurs during infancy, is
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A. trust versus mistrust.
B. autonomy versus state of
doubt.
C. initiative versus guilt.
D. industry versus inferiority.
Answer: A
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
32. According to Erikson’s psychosocial theory, a teenage girl would be facing the crisis of
A. intimacy versus isolation.
B. integrity versus despair.
C. industry versus inferiority.
D. identity versus identity confusion.
Answer: D
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
33. An example of Erikson’s stage of initiative versus guilt would be
A. an infant learning that she can depend on being fed.
B. a 3-year-old trying to fill a cup with water and cheerfully wiping up the water when it spills.
C. a 10-year-old learning to read fluently.
D. a teenager conforming to peer pressure.
Answer: B
Page: 29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
34. Freud’s research stressed the importance of
A. conscious behavior.
B. the role of heredity in parenting.
C. ways in which early relationships affect later ones.
D. the lack of use of recalling childhood experiences.
Answer: C
Page: 28
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
35. In contrast with Freud, Erikson placed more emphasis on
A. physical development.
B. intellectual development.
C. the role of parents.
D. social and cultural influences.
Answer: D
Page: 28
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
36. A long-lasting change in behavior as a result of experience or adaptation to its environment is called
A. modification.
B. cognition.
C. learning.
D. behaviorism.
Answer: C
Page: 28
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Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
37. Two important learning theories are____________ and_______________.
A. behaviorism; cognitive therapy
B. social learning theory; operant conditioning
C. social learning theory; psychoanalytic theory
D. psychoanalytic theory; cognitive theory
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
38. Learning theorists are most concerned with
A. measurable, observable behaviors.
B. unconscious determination of behaviors.
C. development of intelligence.
D. personality conflicts between parents and children.
Answer: A
Page: 30–31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
39. According to the _________ perspective, people’s actions are reactions to aspects of their environment that they
find pleasing, painful, or threatening.
A. organismic
B. behaviorism
C. psychoanalytic
D. humanistic
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
40. The ________ perspective emphasizes the influence of the environment rather than thought processes or
unconscious fantasies.
A. psychoanalytic
B. learning
C. organismic
D. humanistic
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
41. Behaviorists maintain that human behavior is determined by
A. defense mechanisms.
B. self-actualization.
C. unconscious conflicts.
D. conditioning.
Answer: D
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
42. A child learns to whine to get items at the store because when she whines, her parents get frustrated and give her
the desired items. She is basically being rewarded for her whining even though her parents do not seem to realize
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this and are frustrated because the whining is increasing. This is an example of ______ conditioning.
A. operant conditioning
B. classical conditioning
C. behavior conditioning
D. unconscious conditioning
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
43. In classical conditioning, an association is learned between
A. an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
B. an operant response and a reinforcer.
C. a conditioned stimulus and an operant response.
D. an internal stimulus and an external stimulus.
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
44. Which of the following researchers worked with “Little Albert” in one of the earliest and most famous examples
of classical conditioning in human development?
A. John B. Watson
B. Ivan Pavlov
C. B. F. Skinner
D. Edward Thorndike
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
45. The principles of classical conditioning were developed by
A. Sigmund Freud
B. Ivan Pavlov.
C. B. F. Skinner.
D. Edward Thorndike.
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
46. A girl receives an injection and cries. Each time she receives an injection again, the same nurse gives it. Her
mother notices that the child now cries when she sees this nurse even if no injection is given. This is an example of
A. classical conditioning.
B. operant conditioning.
C. fixation.
D. negative reinforcement.
Answer: A
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
47. The psychologist who formulated the principles of operant conditioning was
A. John B. Watson.
B. Sidney Pressey.
C. B. F. Skinner.
D. Ivan Pavlov.
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Answer: C
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
48. __________ is the principle that an organism will repeat behaviors when these behaviors are reinforced.
A. Classical conditioning
B. Operant conditioning
C. Pleasure principle
D. Reality principle
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
49. Any consequence of a behavior that INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior being repeated is called
A. punishment.
B. reinforcement.
C. an aversive event.
D. classical conditioning.
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
50. Punishment __________ a behavior by bringing on a(n)__________event.
A. increases; aversive or unpleasant
B. suppresses; aversive or unpleasant
C. suppresses; positive or pleasant
D. increases; negative or unpleasant
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
51. Reinforcement is most effective when it is __________ after the behavior it is designed to reinforce.
A. delayed
B. immediately
C. constant
D. aversive
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
52. Ann’s mother has stopped reinforcing Ann to make her bed. Ann’s bed-making behavior is likely to be
___________.
A. increased
B decreased
C. punished
D. learned permanently
Answer: B
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
53. Edwin is learning to ride his bike. Each time that he rides onto the gravel driveway, he loses control of the bike
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and falls. Eventually Edwin will no longer ride in the driveway. This example represents the learning process of
A. negative reinforcement.
B. intermittent reinforcement.
C. punishment.
D. conditioning.
Answer: C
Page: 31
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
54. The use of operant conditioning to modify or shape human behavior is called
A. classical conditioning.
B. punishment.
C. behavior modification.
D. reinforcement.
Answer: C
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
55. The principles of social learning theory were developed by
A. B. F. Skinner.
B. Carl Rogers.
C. John B. Watson.
D. Albert Bandura.
Answer: D
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
56. According to social learning theory, the most important element in how children learn a language, deal with
aggression, develop a sense of morality, and learn gender-appropriate behavior is
A. classical conditioning.
B. observation and imitation.
C. punishment of inappropriate behavior.
D. shaping of appropriate behavior.
Answer: B
Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
57. The process of modeling, or observing and imitating others, is referred to as
A. classical conditioning.
B. observational learning.
C. efficacious learning
D. psychoanalytical learning.
Answer: B
Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
58. ____________develops as children gradually learn to master challenges and achieve goals.
A. Social cognitive theory
B. Applied behavioral analysis
C. Social learning theory
D. Self-efficacy
Answer: D
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Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
59. Stacy feels confident in knowing she has what it takes to succeed. Stacy has developed
A. cognition.
B. behavioral analysis.
C. social learning.
D. self-efficacy.
Answer: D
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
60. The perspective on human behavior that is concerned with thought processes and the behavior that reflects those
processes is called the __________ perspective.
A. cognitive
B. thinking
C. behavioral
D. intellectual
Answer: A
Page: 32
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
61. __________ is the researcher best known for his theory of cognitive development.
A. Abraham Maslow
B. Sigmund Freud
C. Erik Erikson
D. Jean Piaget
Answer: D
Page: 32–33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
62. The two major points of Jean Piaget’s cognitive perspective are that people are active in their environment and
that behavior develops ______.
A. in specific stages regardless of culture.
B. randomly at any developmental stage
C. in a specific order that may vary based upon cultural variables.
D. randomly based upon the child’s environment
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
63. Which of the following is NOT one of the cognitive stages through which a child progresses, as theorized by
Jean Piaget?
A. Post-conceptual
B. Sensorimotor
C. Preoperational
D. Concrete operations
Answer: A
Page: 30
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
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64. Piaget’s use of questions and flexible exploration of a child’s responses is known as the __________ method.
A. Socratic
B. clinical
C. field observation
D. interview
Answer: B
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
65. A structure of organized patterns of behavior that a person uses to think about and act in a situation is that
person’s
A. scheme.
B. situation.
C. adaptation.
D. assimilation.
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
66. Which of the following is NOT one of the interrelated principles developed by Piaget to explain the gradual
development of a child’s mental processes?
A. organization
B. adaptation
C. equilibration
D. unconscious processing
Answer: D
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
67. Piaget’s term for the process of TAKING IN formation and incorporating it into existing ways of thinking is
A. schematization.
B. shaping.
C. accommodation.
D. assimilation.
Answer: D
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
68. When a child first sucks on a sippy cup the same way the child sucked from a bottle, the child is trying to learn
to drink from the cup using the process of
A. assimilation.
B. modification.
C. acculturation.
D. adaptation.
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
69. From Jean Piaget’s perspective, a child who alters her behavior to more effectively deal with a new situation is
exhibiting
A. accommodation.
B. primary process thinking.
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C. assimilation.
D. generalization.
Answer: A
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
70. According to Jean Piaget, what is the primary goal or need that leads children to change their ways of thinking to
adapt to new experiences?
A. Satisfaction of id impulses
B. Equilibrium
C. Stable sense of identity
D. Approval from parents
Answer: B
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
71. It is important for parents and teachers to understand how children think so they can more effectively _________
them.
A. discipline
B. teach
C. organize
D. manage
Answer: B
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
72. Jean Piaget’s formal operations stage does not account for the capacity to
A. develop practical problem-solving skills.
B. deal with ambiguous situations.
C. deal with competing truths.
D. All of these.
Answer: B
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Comprehension
73. Which of the following is NOT a criticism of Piaget’s theory of development?
A. It pays little attention to emotional development.
B. It pays little attention to the influence of education on intellectual development.
C. It overestimates the cognitive abilities of young children.
D. It does not say much about individual differences in ability.
Answer: C
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
74. Psychologist Lev Vygotsky saw cognitive growth as a collaborative process in which children learn through
social
A. cognition.
B. status.
C. learning.
D. interaction.
Answer: D
Page: 34
29
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
75. A teacher is helping to direct and organize Jay’s learning with blocks to help him master and internalize his
skills. This reflects Vygotsky’s notion of
A. structured application.
B. zone of proximal development.
C. distal learning.
D. zone of distal development.
Answer: B
Page: 33
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
76. ____________ refers to the temporary support that parents, teachers, and others give a child in doing a task until
the child can do it alone.
A. Laddering
B. Constructing
C. Scaffolding
D. Supporting
Answer: C
Page: 34
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
77. A major distinction between Piaget’s developmental theory and the information-processing approach is that
A. Piaget sees development as continuous, whereas the information-processing approach views development as
occurring in distinct stages.
B. Piaget sees development as an active process, whereas the information-processing view sees the organism as
passive.
C. Piaget focused on perception, whereas the information-processing approach focuses on thinking and memory.
D. Piaget sees development as occurring in stages, whereas the information-processing approach sees development
as continuous.
Answer: D
Page: 34–35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
78. The information-processing approach to explaining cognitive development compares the brain to a __________;
sensory impressions go in and behavior comes out.
A. calculator
B. computer
C. modem
D. telephone
Answer: B
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
79. Which of the following best explains the neo-Piagetian perspective on cognitive development?
A. It emphasizes the efficiency with which information is processed.
B. It explains individual differences in cognitive ability.
C. It explains how qualitative changes in cognition take place.
D. All of these are part of the neo-Piagetian perspective.
Answer: D
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
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Type: Comprehension
80. Which perspective emphasizes the idea that species-specific behaviors enhance the survival of that species?
A. Behavioral
B. Social cognitive
C. Contextual
D. Ethological
Answer: D
Page: 37
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
81. In the 1950s, the British psychologist __________ extended ethological principles to the study of human
development, focusing attention on the mother-infant bond and the bonding process that produces attachment.
A. Mary Ainsworth
B. John Bowlby
C. Konrad Lorenz
D. Niko Tinbergen
Answer: B
Page: 37
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
82. The leader of a mother and baby workshop tells new mothers that attachment between an infant and caregiver
must occur during a critical period to ensure normal development. Which developmental perspective does this
workshop leader support with this statement?
A. Behavioral
B. Ethological
C. Psychoanalytic
D. Informative-processing
Answer: B
Page: 37
Guidepost: 2
Type: Application
83. According to the __________ perspective, development can be understood only when individual behavior is
observed in interaction with the environment.
A. environmental
B. contextual
C. interactive
D. behavioral
Answer: B
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
84. Which American psychologist developed the bioecological perspective, which involves five interlocking
contextual systems ranging from the most intimate to the most distant?
A. Lev Vygotsky
B. Ivan Pavlov
C. Urie Bronfenbrenner
D. Jean Piaget
Answer: C
Page: 35
Guidepost: 2
Type: Knowledge
