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Chapter 2: Designing Instruction and Assessing Learning

INSTRUCTOR NOTES

This chapter addresses ISTE Standards for Teachers 2, and 5.

Chapter Goal

Understand how to design instruction and assess learning.

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the chapter, students should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the similarities and differences in learning theories.
2. List the eight principles of effective instruction for learners.
3. Describe the principles of effective technology utilization.
4. Describe why media literacy skills are vital in today’s classrooms.
5. Describe the types of effective learning assessment.

Chapter Overview

This chapter builds on the framework for learning discussed in Chapter 1.  The chapter begins with an overview of learning theories  followed by principles of effective instruction, effective technology utilization, effective media utilization, and effective learning assessments.

Using This Chapter

The “Principles of Effective Learning Assessment” section offers several possibilities for teachers interested in exploring authentic assessments. This complements the chapter’s discussion on learning theories.

Professional Vocabulary

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT- As a performance-based evaluation of a student’s demonstration of learning in a natural context.

BEHAVIORISM- A theory that equates learning with changes in observable behavior; with this theory, there is no speculating about mental events that may mediate learning.

BENCHMARKS- Standards which students are tested against.

COGNITIVISM– A theory according to which mental processes mediate learning and learning entails the construction or reshaping of mental schemata.

CONSTRUCTIVISM– A theory that considers the engagement of students in meaningful experiences as the essence of learning.

FOUR CS– Four skills through which children can acquire academic knowledge: critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity.

INFORMATION– Knowledge, facts, news, comments, and content as presented in memos, lectures, textbooks, or websites.

INSTRUCTION– Any intentional effort to stimulate learning by the deliberate arrangement of experiences to help learners achieve a desirable change in capability.

LEARNING– The development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment.

MEDIA LITERACY– The ability to interpret and produce a wide variety of media, including text, audio, visuals, and video, which are often combined to form multimedia.

METACOGNITION– The ability to oversee one’s personal learning and to understand how to regulate oneself in the learning process.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES– A concept developed by Howard Gardner, the theory states that not everyone has the same abilities nor do they learn in the same way. There are nine aspects of intelligence.

PORTFOLIO- An integrated collection of student work including a variety of media to demonstrate progress and accomplishments.

RUBRIC- A set of assessment criteria for appraising or judging student products or performances.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY– The study of the effects of the social organization of the classroom on learning.

STANDARDIZED TESTS– State-wide tests that are administered in a consistent manner and using the same scoring procedures.  These are used to identify student learning that is meeting or exceeding state standards and to determine where there is a need for improvement.

TECHNOLOGY LITERACY – Students’ abilities to engage in the use of technology to support their learning and show competency in six key areas: creativity and innovation; communication and collaboration; research and information fluency; critical thinking, problem solving, and decision making; digital citizenship; and technology operations and concept.

 

INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES Suggested Materials

1. There are a number of free Internet videos on the topic of technology in schools and student assessments. You may wish to search for a video to introduce Chapter 2.
2. Post-it notes
3. Photos and/or video of media collected by your students in Chapter 1
4. Television or Internet commercial (pre-record, download, or stream)
5. K-12 text books and other text-based instructional materials

Introduction

Suggested Activity. Ask your students about their own learning styles.  How do they learn best?  How do they know when they have learned something?   What roles do technology and media play in their learning?

Learning Theories

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

Suggested Activity.  Many students have no background in Skinner’s work in operant conditioning. It would be ideal for students to see or, preferably, participate in an actual animal conditioning experiment as a way to make operant conditioning principles more concrete and meaningful.  There are logistical difficulties entailed that will prevent most instructors from offering this experience.  If you have access to the Plato computer software you can use a program called “Rat Lab” which gives the learner a graphically simulated rat in a Skinner box.  By pressing keys on the keyboard you can control the dispensing of food pellets as the rat moves around the box.  It is programmed to respond as a real animal would.  By applying previously learned principles of reinforcement, it is possible to shape the behavior of the simulated rat.

It is possible, however, to offer an analogous exercise in class with no equipment, supplies, or specialized experience necessary.  In this exercise, one of the class members will have his behavior “shaped.”  Actually, you will not be using real reinforcements, so this is really an analogy or simulation.  The procedures are as follows:

• Ask for volunteers to be the experimental subject and select one of them by some random method.
• Send the subject out of the room.
• Collaborate with the remaining students to choose some simple task to be “shaped.” A behavior such as standing on one leg with hands on head, pulling down a window shade, drawing a simple geometric figure on the chalkboard, or the like works well.
• Bring the experimental subject back into the room.
• The instructor becomes the conditioner. You shape the subject’s behavior by giving positive feedback to each action that tends in the correct direction.  For example, you say “good” every time his right foot rises… “very good” as he tentatively holds the foot in mid-air… “excellent” as he stands for a few seconds on one leg…and so on.  The key is to ignore all unwanted actions and to positively reinforce each movement in the correct direction (“successive approximations” in the terms of operant conditioning).
• Conclude the exercise as soon as the desired behavior is achieved. Stop after about five minutes whether or not complete success has been achieved.  (In our experience, it works out well about 80% of the time.)

If the experiment has failed to some extent, use this to lead into a discussion of where it went wrong.  Interview the subject to find out what might have confused him/her.  In any event, conclude with a discussion of the elements of operant conditioning that were observed.  Note that your procedures did not allow the use of “prompts” as in a prompt-response-reinforce paradigm.  Discuss how the shaping could have been speeded up by the use of prompts, a different form of feedback, and so on.

COGNITIVIST PERSPECTIVE

Suggested Activity. Cognitivism explores the mental processes individuals use to respond to their environment.  In other words, cognitivism is about how people think, solve problems, and make decisions.  Point out the active nature of the learner in the cognitive perspective.   Then, ask your students to think about their last trip to the grocery store.  What mental models did they use to 1) Decide a trip to the grocery store was necessary, 2) Plan the trip, 3) Navigate the store, 4) Choose items, and 5) Successfully check-out.

CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE

The heart of constructivism lies in active learning.  New knowledge is created when prior knowledge is activated and learners actively participate in new experiences.  Constructivists believe that learning occurs most effectively when learners are engaged in authentic tasks that relate to meaningful contexts

Suggested Activity. Small group research. Divide the class into groups.  Each group will use their laptops or mobile devices to locate a newsworthy current event.  The topic might be local, national, or global but should involve an unresolved problem.  Have your students decide on a hypothetical constructivist strategy for teaching the current event.  The strategy should be a draft to stimulate thinking rather than a full lesson plan.  Your pre-service teachers might consider the following:

1. What problem(s) are my students attempting to resolve?
2. What do I want my students to learn from this activity?
3. How will I activate their prior knowledge?
4. What is the context of the situation or problem?
5. How will I ensure all students actively participate?
6. What is the role of technology in this learning experience?

You may wish to have each group present their constructivist strategies informally.

 

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE

Suggested activity: Group discussion.  Discuss some or all of the following as they relate to the social organization of a classroom and learning: furniture, independent study, small groups, whole class, student control, rewards, competition, cooperation, and technologybased social networking.  You may wish for your students to research and design learning activities using their knowledge of social psychology.

Information and Instruction

Suggested activity: role-play.  Provide an instructional topic and select one student to play the role of teacher and another to be a student.  In a classroom context, the teacher will defend his/her presentation of information while the student argues that no instruction occurred.

Here is a hypothetical example on the topic of photosynthesis.

Teacher: Bobby, you made a 69 on your science test.  What happened?

Bobby: You didn’t teach me about photosynthesis.

Teacher: Yes I did, I stood here and told the whole class about photosynthesis.  You must not have listened.

Bobby: I remember you talking about photosynthesis but I did not learn it.

Teacher: What do you mean you didn’t learn it?  I told you all about photosynthesis. Bobby: I suppose you did tell us but I cannot remember the details.  I have to DO something or I don’t remember…

Allow the role-play to continue for a few minutes, each participant defending his/her point of view.  Then, open the topic for class discussion; what is the difference between information and instruction? Principles of Effective Instruction for 21^st Century Learners

Suggested activity: Whole group List and number the eight principles of effective instruction on the whiteboard or other display surface.  Have the students in your class number off 1 – 8.  Each number will correspond to one of the eight principles of effective instruction.  Provide students with a few Post-it notes.  Set a timer for 5 minutes and ask your students to develop a strategy for meeting the corresponding principle of effective instruction.  Upon completion, students should place the Post-it under the corresponding principle.  (Example: Grouping students according to hobbies or interests would be posted under the fifth principle of providing social interaction.)  In order to avoid duplication and encourage creativity you may wish to have students return to their seat and develop a new instructional strategy if their Post-it duplicates another.  Conclude the activity by inviting students to tour the strategies and vote for their favorite, the most original, or the most practical strategy.  An alternative to using Post-it notes could be to post their ideas online on a virtual pinboard, such as Padlet, or in discussion threads organized by the principles of effective instruction.

Principles of Effective Technology Utilization

The authors’ emphasize use of technology by instructors and students.  The ISTE Standards for Students specifically outlines expectations for student use of technology to guide their learning. Principles of Effective Media Utilization

Teachers should guide their students to use media as sources for their learning in ways that are wise, safe, and productive.

Suggested Activities.

1. Revisit the media activity from Chapter 1. View the instructional media examples collected by your class and discuss the intended audience, message, medium and setting.
2. View a television commercial and discuss the commercial in relation to the intended audience, message, medium and setting.
3. View an information or news website and discuss the intended audience, message, medium and setting.

Have your students determine the accuracy of the above media messages by finding multiple sources to support or discredit the original media.  Point out that the ISTE Standards for Students addresses many of the skills learners need to be successful consumers of the media resources.  Finally, ask your students to discuss ways in which they might share their media knowledge with others.  How would your students create their own instructional media?

Principles of Effective Learning Assessment

The type of assessment depends on the learning activity. The ability to determine which type of assessment fits the objective is an important skill for teachers to possess. In addition, the use of rubrics and a variety of portfolio and authentic assessments will assure a fair and meaningful assessment for students.

 

Suggested Activities.

1. Explore examples of e-portfolios. Discuss how these might be used in the classroom – both by the teacher and the student.
2. Divide the class in half or into multiple groups. Ask half the class to formulate an argument in favor of traditional assessment and the other half in favor of authentic assessment. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each.
3. Examine a lesson plan found on the web. Determine an appropriate authentic assessment.
4. In small groups, explore http://rubistar.4teachers.org to review several rubrics. Discuss how the rubrics can benefit both the teacher and the students.

 

Questions for Thought

At the end of the chapter the authors have included Demonstrating Professional Knowledge and Skills. Included in those questions and activities are opportunities for students to reflect on their learning. You might wish to expand their reflections by asking questions such as these:

1. Does one learning theory address your particular content area more than another?
2. Which of the eight principles of effective instruction is most important? Which is more intuitive for a learner?
3. Why is it important for students to engage in lessons that utilize the Four Cs?
4. As a teacher, how do you know when it is the right time to utilize technology and media?
5. Regardless of the assessment type, why are rubrics an important tool?

TEST BANK

Chapter Two: Designing Instruction and Assessing Learning

 

Multiple Choice Questions.

 

1) Knowledge, facts, news, comments, and content are considered to be types of A) Instruction

1. Information
2. Learning
3. Feedback

Page Ref: 28

 

2) According to the principles of effective instruction, classroom teachers need to continually think about the best ways to ________ their students in the learning process.

1. Inform
2. Instruct
3. Condition D) Engage

Page Ref: 24

 

3) Which statement best describes media literacy?

1. The ability to interpret and produce a wide variety of media
2. The ability to oversee one’s personal learning
3. The ability to engage in the use of technology to support learning
4. An integrated collection of work that includes a variety of media

Page Ref: 31

 

4) According to the ISTE Standards, students’ abilities to engage in the use of technology to support their learning is known as

1. Social Psychology
2. Technology Literacy
3. Instruction
4. Multiple Intelligences

Page Ref: 29

 

5) What tool might be used to do a comprehensive assessment of student performance?

1. Rubric
2. Traditional test
3. Multiple Intelligences
4. Standardized test Page Ref: 33

6) The Four Cs are identified as critical skills for a successful learning because they promote

1. Further knowledge
2. Low order thinking skills
3. Higher order thinking skills
4. Bloom’s Taxonomy

Page Ref: 27

 

7) ________ is the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes as an individual interacts with information and the environment.

1. Multitasking
2. Evaluation
3. Motivation D) Learning

Page Ref: 21

 

8) Which statement best describes metacognition?

1. The development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes
2. The ability to oversee one’s own learning
3. The desire to see a task to completion
4. Strong interpersonal skills

Page Ref: 23

 

9) Learning can take place

1. When learners interact with each other, teachers, or media
2. Without learner interaction
3. Without new information
4. When learners sit quietly in their desks

Page Ref: 21

 

10) The concept of multiple intelligences was developed by

1. Skinner
2. Gardner
3. Piaget
4. Slavin

Page Ref: 28

 

11) Bodily/kinesthetic, Verbal/linguistic, and Logical/mathematical are examples of

1. Behaviorism
2. Cognitive
3. Multiple Intelligences
4. Constructive Page Ref: 28

12) The engagement of learners in meaningful experiences is a part of

1. Constructivism
2. Behaviorism
3. Cognitivism
4. Social Psychology

Page Ref: 23

 

 

 

13) Mrs. Standora is developing a science lesson for her 8th graders. Her presentation on the plant life cycle will include PowerPoint slides and a teacher-made handout. Afterward, students will use information from class along with their own research to publish an online petition against deforestation. Their work is an example of

1. E-portfolio
2. Authentic Assessment
3. Behavior Theory
4. Common Core Learning Standards

Page Ref: 32

 

Short-Answer and Essay Questions.

 

• Describe the Behaviorist learning theory.

Page Ref: 22

 

• Describe the Cognitivist learning theory.

Page Ref: 22-23

 

• Describe the Constructivist learning theory.

Page Ref: 23

 

• Describe the Social Psychology learning theory.

Page Ref: 24

 

• Compare and contrast information and instruction. Page Ref: 25
• List the eight principles of effective instruction as they are described in the text.

Page Ref: 24-25

 

• Describe the six principles of effective technology utilization.

Page Ref: 29-30

 

• Describe why media literacy skills are important for today’s learners.

Page Ref: 31

 

• Describe why authentic assessment is an effective learning assessment. Page Ref: 32-33

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter Two: Designing and Assessing Learning

Answer Key

 

1. Instruction
2. Engage
3. The ability to interpret and produce a wide variety of media.
4. Technology Literacy
5. Rubric
6. Higher order thinking skills
7. Learning
8. The ability to oversee one’s own learning
9. When learners interact with each other, teachers, or media
10. Gardner
11. Multiple Intelligences
12. Constructivism
13. Authentic Assessment

 

14. F. Skinner proposed that rewarding desired responses shapes behavior patterns. Behaviorists rely on observable behaviors.

 

15. Cognitivist Theory: Models for how learners receive, process, and manipulate information. Learners depend on their own cognitive strategies rather than being dependent on the teacher.  Students develop cognitive strategies when they combine information and skills stored in long and short-term memory to deal with complex tasks.

 

16. Constructivist Theory: Students interact with meaningful experiences to problem solve and discover. Teachers create environments to facilitate student-centered learning and create their own knowledge.

 

17. Social Psychology Theory: The social organization of a classroom impacts learning. Robert Slavin proposed cooperative learning strategies and techniques that include smallgroups, learner-controlled instruction and rewarding group successes.

 

18. Information is general in nature and provides an overview or background for a topic; it is not meant to be memorized. Instruction however, is designed to stimulate learning.  Instruction is a careful design of experiences intended to help learners engage with content in order to gain new knowledge and skills.

 

19. Assess prior knowledge
    1. Consider individual differences
    2. State objectives
    3. Develop metacognitive skills
    4. Provide social interactions
    5. Incorporate realistic contexts
    6. Engage students in relevant practice
    7. Offer frequent, timely, and constructive feedback
20. The ISTE Standards for Students addresses the six principles of effective technology use:
    • Students are creative and innovative in technology use
    • Students effectively communicate and use technology collaboratively
    • Students use technology to gather information
    • Students use technology for critical thinking, problem solving, and decision-making
    • Students demonstrate good global citizenry
    • Students skillfully use technology resources

 

21. Answers will vary.

 

22. Answers will vary.