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Chapter 2
Statistics in the Context of Scientific Research
Part A: Overview and Suggestions
This chapter opens with an overview of scientific research. The goal is to convey the point that behavioral scientists
seek to answer questions. Answering those questions requires the use of statistics. Thus, to understand statistical
methods, a student must know at least the fundamentals of research methodology.
Having students construct a questionnaire allows for a discussion and application of many of the concepts presented
in the beginning of this chapter. The need for empirically testable questions and explicit research hypotheses can be
stressed. Discuss what it means to evaluate a hypothesis and why a hypothesis that cannot be refuted by empirical
data is not scientifically useful. Have students provide examples of untestable hypotheses and how such hypotheses
might be reformulated into statements that would be empirically testable.
In discussing research methods, the idea of conducting ethical research should be discussed. Several sources exist on
the Tuskegee Syphilis Research project conducted from 1932 to 1972 in the United States. This study and its ethical
failures tend to be concrete enough for students to comprehend the real threat of unethical research and its impact on
human subjects. For further information on the Tuskegee syphilis research project, see the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention website http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm or the Online Ethics Center website
http://www.onlineethics.org/CMS/edu/precol/scienceclass/sectone/cs3.aspx. Nova (1993) produced a 60-minute
video called the “Deadly Deception” which contains personal statements by subjects and researchers involved in the
Tuskegee syphilis research project. By showing a brief clip of this study, students can be encouraged to discuss the
ethical responsibilities of behavioral scientists.
If students are asked to formulate research hypotheses, then a discussion of measurement follows naturally. To help
understand measurement, it is beneficial to ask students to suggest alternative ways of measuring the same
behavioral concept. For instance, how might the humor of a set of cartoons be measured? One approach simply
might be to identify the cartoons as belonging to one of two categories–humorous or not humorous. Or, the cartoons
could be rank ordered from the most humorous to the least humorous. As another approach, subjects might complete
a 7-point rating scale on a dimension from 1–not at all humorous to 7–extremely humorous for each cartoon.
Finally, we could time the length of laughter of a person to each cartoon.
Students relate easily to the idea of rank ordering that characterizes ordinal measurement. Ordinal measurement is
illustrated by a common elementary school experience–lining up according to height. Other examples of ordinal
scales are class ranks determined from grade point averages, or college grades, such as A, B, C, D, and F. To initiate
a discussion of characteristics of an ordinal scale, ask students to consider that if student 1 receives an A, student 2,
a B, and student 3, a C for statistics, what does this tell you about their performance in the course? Or suppose you
know that the top ten disease-related causes of death in rank order are: heart disease, cancer, stroke, lung disease,
diabetes, pneumonia and flu, kidney disease, blood poisoning, liver disease, and hypertension. What does this
knowledge tell you about how likely someone is to die of diabetes? Ordinal scaling often is presented in articles
found in newspapers or magazines, such as the top ten areas in which to retire or live, the top three cars in owner
satisfaction, or the top five causes of death.
As discussed in the text, many measures used in the behavioral sciences (for example, psychological test scores,
rating scales) seem to lie in a “gray” area; that is, they appear to convey more quantitative information than ordinal
measurement, but it is difficult to argue that they achieve interval measurement. The distinguishing characteristic of
an interval scale is that it possesses an arbitrary zero point; thus a value of zero on an interval scale does not
represent the absence of the characteristic being measured. Examination scores provide a convenient example for
discussion. For example, does a score of zero on an exam mean the total absence of knowledge of the material?
Exam scores also can be used to illustrate the distinction between discrete and continuous variables. For example, a
student may receive a score of 84 or 85 on a multiple choice examination, but in most instances a score of 84.37
cannot be given. Thus, the exam score exists at specific and discrete values and values between those points do not
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Chapter 2
exist. A continuous variable is easy to describe using height and weight. Ask the class to consider the case of two
people who both report their height as 6 feet. Is it likely that either or both are exactly 6 feet tall? Students will
realize that although both individuals were assigned the same value, some small but real difference probably exists
between them. An argument can then be introduced about the accuracy of measurements and that a continuous
variable can be defined as a variable that could theoretically be measured to finer and finer levels of accuracy.
In the discussion of continuous measurement, the idea of real limits is important. An example that most students can
understand is what constitutes and A, B, C, etc. So, even if an A is defined as a 90% or above, what grade do most
students expect to receive if they earn an 89.5%? Of course, it is best to use the grades and percentages used on your
campus in this example.
Part B: Goals and Objectives
Goal 2.1
Students will identify what constitutes science.
Objective 2.1.a.
Students will define and identify examples of scientific pursuit of knowledge.
Objective 2.1.b.
Students will define and identify the role of the hypothesis in scientific research.
Goal 2.2
Students will identify uses and limitations of major types of research.
Objective 2.2.a.
Students will identify and define six different types of research methods: case study, naturalistic
observation, archival research, survey, experiment, quasi-experiment.
Objective 2.2.b.
Students will identify the uses and limitations for six different types of research methods.
Objective 2.2.c.
Students will identify the basic role of the hypothesis and application of statistics in each of the six types of
research methods.
Objective 2.2.d.
Students will understand that some uses of statistics require different research methodology than other uses
of statistics.
Objective 2.2.e.
Students will identify the importance and the impact of ethical decisions on scientific research with humans
and animals.
Goal 2.3
Students will understand basic issues with regard to measurement in statistics.
Objective 2.3.a.
Students will identify, define, and provide an example of the four scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio.
Objective 2.3.b.
Students will identify, define, and provide an example of qualitative and quantitative data.
Objective 2.3.c.
Students will further classify quantitative data as being either discrete or continuous.
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
Objective 2.3.d.
Students will comprehend the role of the real limit in continuous data.
Goal 2.4
Students will know and appropriately use terminology and symbols in statistics.
Objective 2.4.a.
Students will define, and when appropriate, provide examples of the terminology and symbols necessary
for mastering the objectives listed in this chapter.
Part C: Chapter Outline
• What is science
o One method for the acquisition of knowledge
• Scientific method
o Scientific question
Allows answer to be obtained through collection of empirical data
Empirical data
• Score or measurement obtained from observations
o Research hypothesis
Statement of expected or predicted relationship between two or more variables Research
methods
Approach scientists use to collect data in order to develop or evaluate a research
hypothesis
Used to empirically test hypothesis
Select the type of research method based on question/hypothesis
o Collect data
o Analyze data
o Reach conclusion
• Types of research methodsCase study
Fully detailed examination of a single case
Used for rare or new conditions/situations
Used for hypothesis building
o Naturalistic observation
Unobtrusive examination of organisms in their natural habitat
Used to find associations between variables
Used for hypothesis building and non-causal hypothesis testing
o Archival records
Use of data collected at a different time for a different purpose to test a current noncausal hypothesis
Answering questions by examining data from existing records
Can be used for hypothesis building and testing
o Survey research
Obtaining data through oral interviews or paper and pencil tasks
Test non-causal hypotheses
Of special note
• Survey’s are easy to design, but hard to design well
• Measurement error can be a real issue
o Experiment
Researcher has control over the independent variable
Subjects are randomly assigned to receive different levels of the independent variable
Independent variable (IV)
• Variable manipulated (controlled) by experimenter
• Used in experiments to see whether it causes changes DV
Dependent variable (DV)
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Chapter 2
• Variable that is measured
• Variable that is affected by the IV
Used to test a causal hypothesis: a change in the IV causes a change in the DV
Control
• Not manipulated, remains untouched for comparisons
Causal hypothesis
• A change in IV causes a change in DV
Subject or participant: person or animal who takes part in a research study
o Quasi-experiment
Resembles an experiment
Used when you have subject variables (SV) and not independent variables
• SV is a variable that cannot be manipulated, only measured
• SV is treated like IV
Cannot demonstrate that a change in the SV causes a change in DV, but can be used to
test non-causal hypotheses
o Operational definitionProcedures used to make observations, to manipulate IV, or measure DV
o Sampling error
Inaccuracy caused by individual differences
o Chance difference
Difference observed in experiment due to sampling error and not because of IV
• Measurement
o Process of assigning numbers to variables following a set of rules
• Four types of measurements
o Nominal
Classification of measured variable into different categories
Qualitative data
• Providing information on kind or quality of the variables instead of on amount
o Ordinal
Ranking of objects on an attribute
The amount of a variable is placed in order of magnitude along a dimension
o Interval
Numerical representation of measure
Includes information from nominal and ordinal
Also includes interval information
Assigned a number representing equal amounts of magnitude
Does not have true zero
o Ratio
Includes everything that interval measures have
True zero
o Quantitative
• Data that differ by amount or numerical value
• Two types of quantitative data
o Discrete
A variable that can take on only a finite or countable set of
values within its limits
o Continuous
A variable that can take on an infinite set of values within its
limits
• Real limits of a number
o The points that are midway between the number and the next lower and
next higher number on a scale used to make the measurement
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
Part D: Key Terms and Symbols
archival records
case study
continuous variable
discrete variable
empirical data
experiment
informed consent
institutional review board
interval measurement
lower real limit of a number
measurement
naturalistic observation
nominal measurement
operational definition
ordinal measurement
qualitative data
quantitative data
quasi-experiment
ratio measurement
real limits of a number
research hypothesis
research method
survey research
upper real limit of a number
Part E: Discussion Questions
The following questions can be assigned to students for homework or can be used for an interteaching activity,
assessment, or discussion.
1. What is science? How does it differ from a non-scientific discipline like astrology?
2. What is the role of the research hypothesis in statistics?
3. Identify the strengths and limitations of each the six types of research methods discussed in the textbook.
Identify an example for each type of research method.
4. What constitutes an experiment? Be sure to define random assignment, independent variable, and
dependent variable. Of all of the types of research methods, what can an experiment do that no other type
of research method can do?
5. What is the purpose of quasi-experimental research method? Under what circumstances would a researcher
opt for a quasi-experiment over an experiment?
6. Why is it important that before you begin to the interpret data of a research study you know how the
variables were operationally defined?
7. What are the four types of measurement? Which ones are qualitative or quantitative? Which ones can be
discrete or continuous? Why are there different types of measurement? How might these differences affect
the type of statistics used?
8. For each of the following examples of a measurement, identify whether it is qualitative or quantitative and
whether it is discrete or continuous.
a. A person’s country of birth
b. Time taken to react in a decision making task
c. Religiosity as measured by a scale from 7 to 49
d. Ranking of humorous commercials
e. Number of children in a household
9. Why have we spent the first two chapters discussing aspects of research instead of beginning with
calculations of statistics?
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Chapter 2
Chapter 2
STATISTICS IN THE CONTEXT OF
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
2-1 A scientific question allows an answer to be obtained by .
a. collecting statistics
b. statistical testing
* c. collecting empirical data
d. collecting population parameters
Information: p 18, K, 2
2-2 The word is used to refer to sensory experience or observation.
a. solvable
b. score
c. intuitive
* d. empirical
Information: p 18, K, 2
2-3 The term empirical means .
a. theoretically possible
* b. observable
c. independent
d. intuitive
Information, p 18, K, 2
2-4 A general approach used by a behavioral scientist to collect data is called a(n) .
* a. research method
b. empirical method
c. statistical method
d. operational definition
Information: p 19, K, 2
2-5 Using involves observing behaviors occurring in natural settings without intruding
into the situation.
a. archival records
* b. naturalistic observation
c. experimentation
d. survey research
Information: p 19, K, 2
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
2-6 A psychologist unobtrusively observes children in a preschool to study the children’s
interactions with each other. The research method used by this psychologist is called .
a. experimentation
* b. naturalistic observation
c. survey research
d. archival records research
Information: p 19, E, 2
2-7 Using involves answering scientific questions from information in existing records.
* a. archival records
b. naturalistic observation
c. experimentation
d. survey research
Information: p 20, K, 2
2-8 A psychologist studies crime reports and city census values to determine if the amount of
crime is related to population density. The research method used by this psychologist is
called .
a. experimentation
b. naturalistic observation
c. survey research
* d. archival records research
Information: p 20, E, 2
2-9 Using involves obtaining data from oral or written interviews with people.
a. archival records
b. naturalistic observation
c. experimentation
* d. survey research
Information: p 20, K, 2
2-10 You are asked to fill out a questionnaire indicating your preferences for types of food
when you eat in a restaurant. The research method used here is called .
a. experimentation
b. naturalistic observation
* c. survey research
d. archival records research
Information: p 20, E, 2
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Chapter 2
2-11 involves manipulating one or more independent variables in a carefully controlled
situation.
a. Archival records
b. Naturalistic observation research
* c. Experimentation
d. Survey research
Information: p 21, K, 2
2-12 A psychologist manipulates the type of instructions participants are given when
performing a task. One group of participants is told their performance on a task is
affected only by chance, whereas a second group of participants is told their performance
on the task relates to their ability levels. The research method used by this psychologist
is called .
* a. experimentation
b. naturalistic observation
c. quasi-experimentation
d. archival records research
Information: p 21, E, 2
2-13 When it is either not possible or unethical to manipulate an independent variable, which
research method would be optimal?
a. operational definition
b. experimentation
* c. quasi-experimentation
d. inferring
Information: p 21, K, 2
2-14 A researcher was interested in evaluating the effect of gender on detecting whether
another person is lying or not. What research method would be optimal?
a. naturalistic observation
b. archival records research
c. experimentation
* d. quasi-experimentation
Information: 21, E, 2
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
2-15 A(n) specifies the procedures used to manipulate an independent variable or to
measure a dependent variable.
a. research method
* b. operational definition
c. archival record
d. research design
Information: p 22, K, 2
2- 16 A researcher was interested in studying the effects of a new treatment on people who are
currently receiving treatment for obsession compulsion disorder. The participants are
randomly assigned to one of two groups: new treatment and a control group where no
treatment is given. How might an IRB review such a study?
a. The IRB will approve the study because the potential benefit out weighs the risk of
not receiving treatment.
* b. The IRB will not approve the study because it is unethical to deny all treatment to the
“control group.”
c. The IRB will not review the study as the risk is minimal, and each participant has a
right to select their desired treatment.
d. The IRB will approve the study because the researchers have included a control
group.
Information: p 23, E, 3
2-17 Which of the following would the IRB be looking for in a request by a researcher to use
human subjects in an experiment.
* a. Informed consent of the subject.
b. Highest quality research.
c. Good record keeping, including subjects’ names.
d. Absolutely no risk to the subject.
Information: p 23, A, 3
2-18 Assigning numbers to variables following a set of rules refers to the process of .
a. summarizing
b. numbering
* c. measuring
d. inferring
Information: p 24, K, 1
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Chapter 2
2-19 Classification of a measured variable into different categories is measurement.
a. interval
* b. nominal
c. ordinal
d. ratio
Information: 24, K, 2
2-20 Recording a juror’s decision as either 1 for “guilty” or 2 for “not guilty” represents
measurement.
a. interval
b. ordinal
c. ratio
* d. nominal
Information: 24, A, 2
2-21 If you classify individuals by assigning the value 1 to males and the value 2 to females,
you are using measurement.
* a. nominal
b. ordinal
c. interval
d. ratio
Information: p 24, A, 3
2-22 The fifth place finisher in a ski race was wearing the number 57. In this example the
number 57 represents measurement.
* a. nominal
b. ordinal
c. interval
d. ratio
Information: p 25, A, 2
2-23 Nominal measurements, which categorize the measured variable, are called .
a. empirical
b. statistically useful
* c. qualitative
d. quantitative
Information: p 25, K, 2
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
2-24 Arranging characteristics of a variable along an ordered continuum from largest to
smallest is an example of measurement.
a. interval
b. nominal
* c. ordinal
d. ratio
Information: p 25, K, 2
2-25 Rank ordering students on their grade point average results in measurement.
a. interval
b. nominal
* c. ordinal
d. ratio
Information: p 25, A, 2
2-26 Arranging a group of people from shortest to tallest in height is an example of
measurement.
a. nominal
* b. ordinal
c. interval
d. ratio
Information: p 25, A, 2
2-27 Determining dominance order by ordering animals along the dimension of “most
dominant” to “least dominant” represents measurement.
a. interval
b. nominal
c. ratio
* d. ordinal
Information: p 25, A, 2
2-28 The 17th place finisher in a road race was wearing the number 285. The number 17 in
this example represents measurement.
a. nominal
* b. ordinal
c. interval
d. ratio
Information: p 25, A, 2
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Chapter 2
2-29 Assigning numerical values to a variable with an arbitrary zero point is measurement.
* a. interval
b. nominal
c. ordinal
d. ratio
Information: p 26, K, 2
2-30 Which of the following measurement scales has an arbitrary zero point?
a. Nominal
b. Ordinal
* c. Interval
d. Ratio
Information: p 26, K, 2
2-31 The Fahrenheit and Centigrade temperature scales are examples of measurement
scales.
a. nominal
b. ordinal
c. ratio
* d. interval
Information: p 26, A, 1
2-32 Variable A is measured on an interval scale with values that range from 0 to 10. Which
of the following statements must be true?
a. The value 0 represents the complete absence of variable A.
b. The value 8 represents twice the amount of variable A as does the value 4.
* c. The difference in the amount of A from 2 to 3 is the same as the difference from 6 to
7.
d. All the above statements are true.
Information: p 26, A, 3
2-33 The commonly-used 5- or 7-point rating scale with values ranging from strongly agree to
strongly disagree represents at least measurement.
a. interval
b. nominal
* c. ordinal
d. ratio
Information: p 26, A, 3
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Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank for Statistical Concepts for the Behavioral Sciences, 4e
2-34 Data obtained from rating scales often are treated statistically as representing
measurement.
* a. interval
b. nominal
c. ratio
d. average
Information: p 26, K, 3
2-35 A set of rating scales that are added or averaged is called a rating scale.
* a. summated
b. cumulative
c. composite
d. multidimensional
Information: p 27, K, 3
2-36 Assigning numerical values to a variable with a scale that possesses a physically real zero
point is measurement.
a. interval
* b. ratio
c. nominal
d. ordinal
Information: p 28, K, 2
2-37 Time, length and weight are variables that typically are measured by scales.
a. interval
b. nominal
c. ordinal
* d. ratio
Information: p 28, A, 2
2-38 A person who is 50 years old can be said to be twice as old as a person who is 25 years
old, because the measurement of age is made with a scale.
a. nominal
b. ordinal
* c. ratio
d. interval
Information: p 28, A, 2
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Chapter 2
2-39 A bathroom scale used to measure a person’s weight provides a(n) measurement.
a. nominal
* b. ratio
c. ordinal
d. interval
Information: p 28, A, 3
2-40 The sixth place finisher of a marathon finished in a time of 156 minutes. The number
156 in this example represents measurement.
a. nominal
b. ordinal
c. interval
* d. ratio
Information: p 28, A, 2
2-41 Measurements that provide numerical information about the variable measured are called
.
a. empirical
* b. quantitative
c. statistically useful
d. qualitative
Information: p 28, K, 2
2-42 Given a choice, which of the following scales is preferred for measuring a variable?
a. Interval
b. Nominal
c. Ordinal
* d. Ratio
Information: p 29, E, 1
2-43 Which of the following is the correct order for identifying the four types of measurement
scales from least to most information provided?
a. Nominal-interval-ratio-ordinal
b. Ratio-nominal-interval-ordinal
* c. Nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio
d. Ratio-ordinal-interval-nominal
Information: p 29, E, 1
